Against intuition, a set of "desirable difficulties" has been touted as a way in which to improve learning and lengthen retention. This includes, for instance, varying the conditions of learning to allow for more active, effortful, or challenging, contexts. In the current paper, we introduce data that show that, on the contrary, learning…

Accurate metacognitive monitoring improves performance in a variety of naturalistic contexts. However, the laboratory contexts used to study metacognition differ from naturalistic environments in important ways. Specifically, laboratory experiments require learners to make repeated, overt judgments that are thought to reflect underlying…

The testlet comprises a set of items based on a common stimulus. When the testlet is used in the tests, there may violate the local independence assumption, and in this case, it would not be appropriate to use traditional item response theory models in the tests in which the testlet is included. When the testlet is discussed, one of the most…

In rule-based (RB) category-learning tasks, the optimal strategy is a simple explicit rule, whereas in information-integration (II) tasks, the optimal strategy is impossible to describe verbally. This study investigates the effects of two different category properties on learning difficulty in category learning tasks--namely, linear separability…

GAM, combining games and agent-based models, shows potential for investigating complex social phenomena. Games offer engaging environments generating insights into social dynamics, perceptions, and behaviours, while agent-based models support the analysis of complexity. Games and agent-based models share the important ability both to input and…

Objective: The objective of this study was threefold: (a) to create a rubric for response complexity (RC), defined as an admixture of response length, grammatical diversity, categorisation, and sophistication; (b) to measure behavioural and cognitive engagement through students' written responses on a school-based written activity, and (c) to…

Objectives: To examine college students' conflicting COVID-19 information exposure, information-seeking, concern, and cognitive functioning. Participants: 179 undergraduates were recruited in March-April 2020, and 220 in September 2020 (Samples 1 and 2, respectively). Methods: Students completed the Attention Network Test, NASA Task Load Index,…

Cognitive load theory's incorporation of evolutionary perspectives suggests biologically primary knowledge, acquired through evolutionary processes, can support students in learning biologically secondary knowledge, the focus of typical educational curricula. Touch-based interactions using the hands are likely to be biologically primary. The…

Contribution: This article suggests a novel method for diagnosing a learner's cognitive proficiency using deep neural networks (DNNs) based on her answers to a series of questions. The outcome of the forecast can be used for adaptive assistance. Background: Often a learner spends considerable amounts of time in attempting questions on the concepts…

Background: Various findings regarding the relationship between math anxiety and engagement have been identified in the literature, with many focusing on general math anxiety and overall math engagement. Objectives: Based on the control-value theory, this study examined the relationships between trait- and state-math anxiety and behavioural and…

Some learners of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) face difficulties learning Chinese characters (hanzi), particularly if they are from alphabetic language backgrounds such as English. Many CFL students need to develop the ability to self-regulate their learning to cope with the learning of hundreds of characters in the beginner and intermediate…

Background: In multimedia learning environments, pedagogical agents have emerged as an innovative tool to enhance digital instruction, yet optimising their design for maximal learning effectiveness remains underexplored. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate how specific design elements of pedagogical agents, namely appearance and voice…

Foreign language (L2) learners' speaking proficiency is often quantified using two dimensions: intuitive human ratings and analytical, linguistic complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) indices. While previous research and assessment practices have predominantly focused on either the subjective approach to L2 speaking or the objective one, it is…

Academic cyberloafing, defined as the involvement in non-academic online activities during academic tasks, has emerged as a prevalent concern within higher education. While previous research has identified course-related factors that may influence academic cyberloafing, the specific relation between perceived course difficulty and academic…

Background and Context: Feedback on one's progress is essential to new programming language learners, particularly in out-of-classroom settings. Though many study materials offer assessment mechanisms, most do not examine the accuracy of the feedback they deliver, nor give evidence on its validity. Objective: We investigate the potential use of a…