Some philosophers argue that reflection is key to rational thinking. By tying reflective thinking to language, they struggle to account for minimally verbal infants and exclude nonhuman animals. This study assessed processing of undermining defeaters--a basic form of reflective thinking--in 36 two-year-old British children (13 female; M[subscript…

Prioritizing what information to learn based on value is a critical developmental skill. Across two studies, value-based memory was assessed predominately in White children aged 6- to 7-years-old and 9- to 10-years-old using a nationwide sample collected between 2020 and 2023. Children learned cue-target associations worth varying point values.…

Purpose: Predictive coding theories posit that autism is characterized by an over-adjustment to prediction errors, resulting in frequent updates of prior beliefs. Atypical weighting of prediction errors is generally considered to negatively impact the construction of stable models of the world, but may also yield beneficial effects. In a novel…

We conducted a quantitative longitudinal examination of the cognitive development of 186 counselors-in-training (CITs) across their training programs. Findings indicate a general developmental trajectory, with most change occurring between completion of practicum and end of program. There were key differences in trajectories between clinical…

Prior research suggests a link between curiosity and metacognition, but how curiosity is involved in two key metacognitive processes -- metacognitive monitoring (i.e., assessing one's cognitive states and performance) and metacognitive control (i.e., adjusting decisions and behaviors) -- remains unclear. In three experiments (N = 264) participants…

Successful action anticipation in dynamic social environments, such as sports, requires the integration of prior expectations with observed kinematic cues. However, little is known about how temporal constraints modulate this integration process. In this EEG study, thirty-five expert basketball players completed a sport-specific prediction task in…

Students in a spins-first quantum mechanics course often have difficulties transitioning from spin systems to continuous systems like the infinite square well. Our study investigates how students understand discrete and continuous quantities in quantum mechanics and the connections the students make between them. We interviewed six students who…

Critical thinking and strategic processing have become ubiquitous both in the educational research literature as well as practice. However, neither of these constructs has had commonly agreed upon definitions or common agreement on how they relate to each other. This review first lays the conceptual stage for how these constructs have been defined…

Current views posit that forming and retrieving memories of ongoing events influences action control. However, the organizational structure of these memories, or event files, remains unclear. The "hierarchical coding view" posits a hierarchical structure, wherein task sets occupy a high level of the hierarchy. Here, the contents of an…

The goal of this article is to propose a framework for understanding the nature of "how people construct problems" by interacting with situations and subsequently to offer implications for instructional design and future research. We propose that people must interactively frame the components of a situation in order to establish the…

Language is one of the essential elements of communication. Learning some common language can help people overcome language barriers between people from different countries. English is one of the common languages and it helps individuals adapt to the modern world. Learning the English language is beneficial through teaching methods developed based…

It is said that our species use mnemonics -- that "magic of memorization" -- to engrave an enormous amount of information in the brain. Yet, it is unclear how mnemonics affect memory and what the neural underpinnings are. In this electroencephalography study, we examined the hypotheses whether mnemonic training improved…

In this paper, we discuss the role of executive functions in shifting between symbolic and situational mathematical representations. Through the process of inhibition, an abstract representation is separated from concrete features and represented in terms of abstract symbols. This is a shift from a situational representation to a symbolic one.…

During early adolescence, individuals can refine their use of cognitive reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy while experiencing instability of psychological well-being through changes to positive affect, negative affect and life satisfaction. This scoping review aimed to identify and summarise the key findings from studies that have…

Forum discussions in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) play a crucial role in promoting learning engagement and academic achievement. In particular, discussion topics significantly influence learners' emotional and cognitive engagement. However, the complex interrelationships among these factors remain underexplored. This study introduces an…